The integration of children diagnosed with autism is an important issue in France. Indeed, the simple fact that a teacher can modulate their attitude or expectations according to a diagnostic label can constitute a prejudice in the child’s care. Labels tend to influence how people and situations are evaluated. The term used in this case is that of labeling bias: it refers to having specific expectations or perceptions about an individual with a particular label (Stinnett, Crawford, Gillespie, Cruce, & Langford, 2001).
Several researchers, particularly in social psychology, have attempted to deepen our knowledge of the consequences of label bias. Some studies have pointed out that labels may have a positive influence: for example, they can elicit more altruistic responses and more tolerant attitudes, as well as provide answers to a previously unexplained problem in children (Fernald & Gettys, 1980). Nevertheless, according to Tilzer (1987), “labels are useful in the fact that they help to define and to recognize a problem, however they can have a serious destructive impact on a child’s self-esteem as well as on the perceptions of those who come into contact with the labelled child (aged 14-21)”. Indeed, labels can also have a negative impact, particularly in the context of education: the influence of students’ labels on teachers’ expectations and attitudes is a predominant research theme in scientific literature. Among this research, some authors have concluded that teachers are more likely to make judgments about children who are labelled; these labels can often refer to hurtful stereotypes that are not characteristic of the student. Labels affect not only teachers, but also the student and their academic performance (Kesterson, 2012).
For example, Fox and Stinnett’s study (1996) evaluated the effect of labels for various behavioural disorders (such as “emotionally disturbed”) on school psychologists, special education teachers and teachers. Regardless of the profession, all three groups of participants had more negative expectations of success for labelled students compared to non-labelled students. These findings appear important in light of the extensive research showing that teachers’ negative expectations of a student may increase the likelihood of negative behaviour (McGaugh, 2003; Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1968) as well as poorer academic performance in children labelled as less successful by teachers (Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1968).
Studies related to the impact of labels on teachers focus primarily on labels referring to disability in general (Rolison & Medway, 1985; Thelen et al., 2003), but much less on psychological disabilities or even specific psychopathologies. However, a few authors have focused on Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) (Ohan, Visser, Strain, & Allen, 2011). In their study, these authors presented the same clinical vignettes containing symptoms of this disorder, while varying the presence or absence of the ADHD label. These authors concluded that teachers and professorial students tended to perceive greater disability, more negative emotions and lower self-confidence (in terms of their ability to take over the child) towards the student, but also a greater willingness to participate in setting up care when confronted with the diagnostic label.
References
Fernald, C. D., & Gettys, L. (1980). Diagnostic labels and perceptions of children’s behavior. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 9(3), 229–233. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374418009532996
Kesterson, J. S. (2012). The effects of labeling and teacher knowledge of autism on attributions made about students with autism spectrum disorders. Oklahoma State University.
McGaugh, J. L. (2003). Memory and Emotion (Columbia University Press). USA: London Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
Ohan, J. L., Visser, T. A. W., Strain, M. C., & Allen, L. (2011). Teachers’ and education students’ perceptions of and reactions to children with and without the diagnostic label “ADHD.” Journal of School Psychology, 49(1), 81–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2010.10.001
Rolison, M.A. & Medway, F.J. (1985). Teachers’ expectations and attributions for student achievement: Effects of label, performance pattern, and special education intervention. American Education Research Journal, 22, 561-573.
Rosenthal, R., & Jacobson, L. (1968). Pygmalion in the classroom. The Urban Review, 3(1), 16–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02322211
Stinnett, T. A., Crawford, S. A., Gillespie, M. D., Cruce, M. K., & Langford, C. A. (2001). Factors affecting treatment acceptability for psychostimulant medication versus psychoeducational intervention. Psychology in the Schools, 38(6), 585–591. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.1045
Tilzer, P. A. (1987). The effects of labeling on the self-perceptions of special education students. Graduate Research in Urban Education & Related Disciplines, 18(1), 1–33.